Information, Democracy, and the Fourth Estate
Understanding mass media, types, functions, and conglomerates
⭐ 275 points available
From colonial newspapers to social media revolution
⭐ 300 points available
First Amendment, FCC, and media transparency
⭐ 275 points available
Bias, framing, campaigns, and societal effects
⭐ 300 points available
Freedom of the press and an independent media are important dimensions of a liberal society and a necessary part of a healthy democracy. "No government ought to be without censors," said Thomas Jefferson, "and where the press is free, no one ever will."
Ours is an exploding media system. What started as print journalism was subsequently supplemented by radio coverage, then network television, followed by cable television. Now, with the addition of the Internet, blogs and social media—a set of applications or web platforms that allow users to immediately communicate with one another—give citizens a wide variety of sources for instant news of all kinds.
The Internet also allows citizens to initiate public discussion by uploading images and video for viewing, such as videos documenting interactions between citizens and the police. Provided we are connected digitally, we have a bewildering amount of choices for finding information about the world.
+30 points! 🌟 To accomplish its work, the media employs a number of people in varied positions:
Each form of media has its own complexities and is used by different demographics. Millennials (born 1981-1996) and Generation Z (born 1997-2012) are more likely to get news and information from social media, such as Instagram, TikTok, Twitter, and YouTube, while Baby Boomers (born 1946-1964) are most likely to get their news from television, either national broadcasts or local news.
+30 points! 📺 Television offers viewers a variety of formats:
Network news has a national focus on politics, international events, and the economy, while local news focuses on regional business, crime, sports, and weather.
| Media Type | Primary Audience | Key Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Television News (Network) | Baby Boomers | Visual storytelling, scheduled programming, national focus |
| Cable News (CNN, FOX, MSNBC) | Adults 35+ | 24-hour coverage, specialized content, opinion programming |
| Social Media | Millennials & Gen Z | Instant updates, user interaction, viral sharing |
| Radio | Commuters, all ages | Audio-only, local focus, talk shows |
| Newspapers | Older demographics | In-depth coverage, investigative journalism |
| Podcasts | 18-44 year olds | On-demand, specialized topics, longer format |
+30 points! 📡 Cable and Internet have transformed news delivery:
The ease of online publication has made it possible for more niche media outlets to form, from the New York Times online to Politico to Daily Kos.
Most media are controlled by a limited number of conglomerates. A conglomerate is a corporation made up of a number of companies, organizations, and media networks. In the 1980s, more than fifty companies owned the majority of television and radio stations and networks. By 2011, six conglomerates controlled most of the broadcast media in the United States.
+30 points! 📉 Media consolidation has accelerated dramatically:
The Walt Disney Company owns ABC Television Network, ESPN, A&E, Lifetime, Disney Channel, and Disney+. Viacom owns BET, Comedy Central, MTV, Nickelodeon, and VH1.
Conglomerate ownership can create circumstances in which censorship may occur. For example, in 2010, iHeartMedia (formerly Clear Channel Media) refused to run several billboard ads for the St. Pete Pride Festival in Florida. Because iHeartMedia owns most of the billboards in the area, this limitation decreased awareness of the event and was viewed as censorship by festival organizers.
If you are concerned about the lack of variety in the media and the market dominance of media conglomerates, the non-profit organization Free Press tracks and promotes open communication.
The media exist to fill a number of functions. Whether the medium is a newspaper, radio, or television newscast, a corporation behind the scenes must bring in revenue and pay for the cost of the product. Revenue comes from advertising and sponsors. But corporations will not pay for advertising if there are no viewers or readers. So all programs and publications need to entertain, inform, or interest the public.
+30 points! 🏛️ The media's critical functions in democracy:
As the chief international correspondent for CNN, Christiane Amanpour is one media decision maker. In an interview with Oprah Winfrey, Amanpour explains that her duty, and that of other journalists, is to make a difference in the world: "we have to educate people and use the media responsibly."
Journalists cannot passively sit by and wait for stories to find them. "Words have consequences: the stories we decide to do, the stories we decide not to do . . . it all matters."
One of her biggest regrets was not covering the genocide in Rwanda in 1994, which cost nearly a million lives. "If we don't respect our profession and we see it frittering away into the realm of triviality and sensationalism, we'll lose our standing. That won't be good for democracy. A thriving society must have a thriving press."
+30 points! 🌐 How media promotes democracy:
The evolution of the media has been fraught with concerns and problems. Accusations of mind control, bias, and poor quality have been thrown at the media on a regular basis. Yet the growth of communications technology allows people today to find more information more easily than any previous generation.
Early news was presented to local populations through the print press. While several colonies had printers and occasional newspapers, high literacy rates combined with the desire for self-government made Boston a perfect location for the creation of a newspaper, and the first continuous press was started there in 1704.
+30 points! 📜 The role of newspapers in American independence:
+30 points! 📰 Print media evolution 1830-1900:
In the twenty-first century, newspapers have struggled to stay financially stable. Print media earned $46 billion from ads in 2012, but only $20.5 billion in 2020. Many newspapers now maintain both print and Internet presence. One-fifth of small-town newspapers have folded, and state legislative press corps have shrunk considerably.
Radio news made its appearance in the 1920s. The National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) began running sponsored news programs and radio dramas. Comedy programs like Amos 'n' Andy and Easy Aces became popular during the 1930s as listeners sought humor during the Depression.
+30 points! 📻 Radio transformed American life:
Franklin D. Roosevelt became famous for harnessing the political power of radio. On entering office in March 1933, President Roosevelt needed to quiet public fears about the economy and prevent people from removing their money from banks.
Eight days after assuming the presidency, he delivered his first radio speech: "My friends: I want to talk for a few minutes with the people of the United States about banking..."
Roosevelt spoke directly to the people and addressed them as equals. One listener described the chats as soothing, with the president acting like a father, sitting in the room with the family, cutting through the political nonsense. These "fireside chats" became an important way for him to promote his New Deal agenda and allowed him to expand both the government and the presidency beyond their traditional roles.
+30 points! 🎖️ World War II transformed radio news:
The Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) to set standards, frequencies, and license stations. The Communications Act of 1934 replaced it with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which still regulates interstate communications today.
In the 1980s, talk stations began to gain ground on both AM and FM frequencies. By the 1990s, talk shows had gone national, showcasing broadcasters like Rush Limbaugh. Today, podcasting has exploded with 106.7 million U.S. listeners, with 77.9 million listening at least once per week.
Television combined the best attributes of radio and pictures and changed media forever. The first official broadcast in the United States was President Franklin Roosevelt's speech at the opening of the 1939 World's Fair in New York. By the 1950s, the price of television sets had dropped, more stations were being created, and advertisers were buying spots.
+35 points! 🎬 Television transformed political communication:
Visit American Rhetoric for free access to speeches, video, and audio of famous presidential and political speeches.
+30 points! 📺 Between the 1960s and 1990s:
Following their speeches, Clinton's approval rose from 46% to 51%, and Bush's rose from 51% to 90%.
The invention of cable in the 1980s and the expansion of the Internet in the 2000s opened up more options for media consumers than ever before. Viewers can watch nearly anything at the click of a button, bypass commercials, and record programs. The resulting saturation, or inundation of information, may lead viewers to abandon the news entirely or become more suspicious and fatigued about politics.
+30 points! 📉 Media saturation has changed presidential communication:
When president-elect Barack Obama admitted an addiction to his Blackberry, the signs were clear: A new generation was assuming the presidency. Obama's use of technology was a part of life, not a campaign pretense.
One of Obama's campaign advisors was Chris Hughes, a cofounder of Facebook. The campaign created a powerful online presence with sites on YouTube, Facebook, MySpace, and more.
By Election Day, Obama's skill with the web was clear: he had over two million Facebook supporters, while McCain had 600,000. Obama had 112,000 followers on Twitter, and McCain had only 4,600.
+30 points! 📲 Social media has transformed political communication:
Local government and politics need visibility. College students need a voice. Why not become a citizen journalist?
City and county governments hold meetings on a regular basis and students rarely attend. Yet issues relevant to students are often discussed—like increases in street parking fines, zoning for off-campus housing, and tax incentives for new businesses that employ part-time student labor.
Attend some meetings, ask questions, and write about the experience on your Facebook page. Create a blog, use Storify to curate a social media debate, or create a YouTube channel. If your state requires public institutions to open their meetings, consider attending university Board of Regents meetings, which cover tuition increases, class cuts, and student conduct policies.
The Constitution gives Congress responsibility for promoting the general welfare. While it is difficult to define what this broad dictate means, Congress has used it to protect citizens from media content it deems inappropriate. Although the media are independent participants in the U.S. political system, their liberties are not absolute and there are rules they must follow.
The U.S. Constitution was written in secrecy. Journalists were neither invited to watch the drafting, nor did the framers talk to the press about their disagreements and decisions. Once finished, however, the Constitution was released to the public and almost all newspapers printed it, along with commentary about the new form of government it proposed.
+30 points! ⚖️ The foundation of American press freedom:
The media do not have the right to commit slander (speaking false information with intent to harm a person or entity) or libel (printing false information with intent to harm). These acts constitute defamation of character that can cause loss of reputation and income.
+30 points! ⚖️ When can media be sued for defamation?
Example: In 2010, Star magazine published "Addiction Nightmare: Katie Drug Shocker." Katie Holmes filed a $50 million lawsuit, and Star's parent company eventually settled with an apology.
The media have only a limited right to publish material the government says is classified. If a newspaper obtains classified material, the government may request certain material be redacted.
+30 points! 📰 A landmark case for press freedom:
The liberties enjoyed by newspapers are overseen by the U.S. court system, while television and radio broadcasters are monitored by both the courts and a government regulatory commission.
+30 points! 📻 The evolution of broadcast regulation:
+30 points! 📺 How the equal-time rule works:
+30 points! 🚫 How the FCC regulates content:
The press has had some assistance in performing its muckraking duty. Laws that mandate federal and many state government proceedings and meeting documents be made available to the public are called sunshine laws.
+30 points! 📁 How FOIA works:
Want to request a government document but unsure where to start? If the agency is part of the U.S. government, the Freedom of Information Act portal will help you out.
Because White House limitations on the press are not unusual, many journalists rely on confidential sources. The practice of granting anonymity to sources is sometimes referred to as reporter's privilege.
+30 points! 🕵️ The most famous confidential source in American history:
The line between journalists' expectation of openness and the government's willingness to be open has continued to be a point of contention. Some administrations use the media to increase public support; others limit the media to limit dissent.
+25 points! 🏛️ How different presidents have handled the press:
In what ways can the media affect society and government? The media's primary duty is to present us with information and alert us when important events occur. This information may affect what we think and the actions we take. The media can also place pressure on government to act by signaling a need for intervention or showing that citizens want change.
Concerns about the effects of media on consumers and the existence and extent of media bias go back to the 1920s. Reporter and commentator Walter Lippmann noted that citizens have limited personal experience with government and the world and posited that the media, through their stories, place ideas in citizens' minds.
+30 points! 📚 How scholars have understood media influence:
The consensus: media have some effect, even if subtle.
+30 points! 🎬 Two approaches to framing stories:
When it is spotty, the media's coverage of campaigns and government can sometimes affect the way government operates and the success of candidates. In 1972, the McGovern-Fraser reforms created a voter-controlled primary system, so party leaders no longer pick the presidential candidates. Now the media are seen as kingmakers and play a strong role in influencing who will become the nominees.
+30 points! 🎪 How campaigns try to control media coverage:
+30 points! 📺 How candidate coverage has changed:
+30 points! 📺 The increase in partisan coverage:
+30 points! 📱 A new era in presidential-media relations:
The media choose what they want to discuss. This agenda setting creates a reality for voters and politicians that affects the way people think, act, and vote. Even if the crime rate is going down, citizens accustomed to reading stories about assault and other offenses still perceive crime to be an issue.
+30 points! 📊 Research on media's portrayal of race:
Racial framing, even if unintentional, affects perceptions and policies. The perception that most recipients of welfare are working-age African Americans may have led some citizens to vote for candidates who promised to reduce welfare benefits. When survey respondents were shown a story of a White unemployed individual, 71% listed unemployment as one of the top three problems facing the United States, while only 53% did so if the story was about an unemployed African American.
+30 points! 👩 Historical bias in coverage of women:
+30 points! 👨👩👧👦 Why negative coverage affects women candidates:
The Center for American Women in Politics at Rutgers University researches the treatment women receive from both government and the media, and shares the data with the public.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Agenda Setting | The media's ability to choose which issues or topics deserve public discussion |
| Beat | The coverage area assigned to journalists for news or stories |
| Citizen Journalism | Video and print news posted to the Internet by citizens rather than news media |
| Cultivation Theory | The idea that media affect a citizen's worldview through the information presented |
| Equal-Time Rule | An FCC policy that all candidates must be given same radio/TV airtime opportunities |
| Fairness Doctrine | A defunct 1949 FCC policy requiring balanced coverage of controversial issues |
| Framing | The process of giving a news story a specific context or background |
| FOIA | Federal statute requiring executive branch to provide requested information |
| Libel/Slander | Printed/spoken false information intended to harm a person or entity |
| Mass Media | Collection of all media forms that communicate information to the general public |
| Muckraking | News coverage exposing corrupt business and government practices |
| Priming | Predisposing readers or viewers to think a particular way |
| Prior Restraint | Government action that stops someone from publishing before they are able to |
| Reporter's Privilege | The right of a journalist to keep a source confidential |
| Soft News | News presented in an entertaining style |
| Sunshine Laws | Laws requiring government documents and proceedings to be made public |
| Yellow Journalism | Sensationalized coverage of scandals and human interest stories |
Chapter 8: The Media
| Section | Status | Points |
|---|